Problems And Difficulties In Capital Budgeting Accounting Essay Essay Example

Problems And Difficulties In Capital Budgeting Accounting Essay Paper There are several factors and considerations which make the capital budgeting determinations as the most of import determination of finance director. The relevancy and significance of capital budgeting may be stated as follows: Long term consequence: Possibly, the most characteristics of a capital budgeting determinations and which makes the capital budgeting so important is that these determinations have a long footings effects on the hazard and return composing of the house. These determination affect the future place of the house to a considerable extent as the capital budgeting determinations have a long term deductions and effects. By taking a capital budgeting determination, a finance director in fact makes a committedness into the hereafter, both by perpetrating to the hereafter needs of financess of the undertakings and by perpetrating to its future deductions. The masking characteristic between short term determinations and capital budgeting determinations is the clip. We will write a custom essay sample on Problems And Difficulties In Capital Budgeting Accounting Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Problems And Difficulties In Capital Budgeting Accounting Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Problems And Difficulties In Capital Budgeting Accounting Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Significant Committedness: the capital budgeting determinations by and large involve big committedness of financess and as a consequence significant part of capital financess are block in the capital budgeting determinations. More attending is required for capital is required for capital budgeting determination. In footings hence, more attending is required for capital budgeting determinations, otherwise the house may endure from the heavy capital losingss in clip to come. It is besides possible that the return from a undertakings may non be sufficient plenty to warrant the capital budgeting determination. Irreversible determinations: most of the capital budgeting determinations are irreversible determinations. Once taken, the house may non be in a place to return back unless it is ready to absorb heavy losingss which may ensue due to abandoning a undertaking in midway. Therefore, the capital budgeting determinations should be taken merely after sing and measuring each minute item of the undertaking, otherwise the fiscal effects may be far making. Affect the capacity and strength to vie: the capital budgeting determinations affect the capacity and strength of a house to confront the competition. A house may lose fight if the determination to overhaul is delayed or non justly taken. Similarly, a timely determination to take over a minor rival may finally ensue even in the monopolistic place of the house. Problems and Troubles in Capital Budgeting The job in capital budgeting determinations may be as follows: Future uncertainness: all capital budgeting determinations involve long term which is unsure. Even if every attention is taken and the undertaking is evaluated every minute item, still 100 % correct and certain prognosis is non possible. The finance director covering with the capital budgeting determinations, hence, should seek to be every bit analytical as possible. The uncertainness of the capital budgeting determinations may be mention to cost of the undertaking, hereafter, legal commissariats, political state of affairs etc. Time Component: The deductions of a capital budgeting determination are scattered over a long period, the cost and benefit of a determination may happen at different point of clip. as a consequence, the cost and benefits of a capital budgeting determination are by and large non comparable unless adjusted for the clip value of money. The cost of a undertaking is incurred instantly ; nevertheless, it is recovered in figure of old ages. These entire returns may be more than the cost incurred, still the net benefit can non be ascertained unless the hereafter benefits are adjusted to do them comparable with the cost. Furthermore, the longer the clip period involved, the greater would be the uncertainness. Measurement Problem: sometimes a finance director may besides confront troubles in mensurating the cost and benefits of undertakings in quantitate footings. For illustration: the new merchandise produced to be launched by a house may ensue in addition or lessening due to other factor besides. Types Of Capital Budgeting Decisions The undertaking may besides be classified as gross bring forthing undertakings or cost reducing undertakings. In general, the undertakings can be categorized as follows: From the point position of firmaa‚Â ¬a„?s being: the capital budgeting determinations may be taken by a freshly incorporated house or by an already existing house. New Firm: A new integrated house may be required to take different determinations such as choice of a works to be installed, capacity use at initial phases, to put up or non at the same time the accessory unit etc. Existing Firm: A house which is already bing may besides be required to take assorted determinations from clip to clip to run into the challenges of competition or altering environment. From the point of position of determination state of affairs: The capital budgeting determinations may besides be classified from the point of position of the determination state of affairs as follows: Mutually Exclusive Decisions: Two or more alternate proposals are said to be reciprocally sole when credence of one alternate consequence in automatic rejection of all other proposals. The reciprocally sole determinations occur when a house has more than one alternate but competitory proposal before it. For illustration, choosing one hardship bureau to take attention of the promotional run out justly rejects all other competitory bureaus. Similarly, choice of one location out of different executable locations is a reciprocally sole determination. Accept-Reject Decisions: An Accept-Reject determination occurs when a proposal is independently accepted or rejected without respect to any other alternate proposal. This type of determination is made when proposal is cost and benefits neither consequence nor are affected by the cost and benefits of other proposals. Contingent Decisions: sometimes, a capital budgeting determination is contingent to some other determination. For illustration, cybernation of a bank subdivision may necessitate non merely air-conditioning but besides transportation of some staff member to other subdivisions. Similarly, put ining a undertaking at some distant location may necessitate outgo or development of substructure besides. Solution CALUCATION OF CASH FLOWS Particulars Sum Net income before revenue enhancement and depreciation ( PBT ) Depreciation ( w.note ) 2,00,000 -1,53,343 Net income before revenue enhancement Tax @ 50 % 46,657 23,329 Net income after revenue enhancement ( PAT ) 23,328 Cash influx ( each twelvemonth ) = Net income after revenue enhancement ( PAT ) + depreciation = 23,328 + 1,53,343 = Rs.1,76,671 Terminal influx in the 7th twelvemonth = Rs.30,000 ( trash value ) Working NOTESaa‚Â ¬ : Calculation of depreciation = Cost of works + installing cost aa‚Â ¬ bit value Economic life = 11,00,000 + 3,400 aa‚Â ¬ 30,000 7yrs = Rs.1,53,343 CALCULATION OF NET PRESENT VALUE Year hard currency influx PVF ( 10 % , N ) Entire PVF ( Rs. ) 1 1,76,671 0.909 1,60,594 2 1,76,671 0.826 1,45,931 3 1,76,671 0.751 1,32,680 4 1,76,671 0.683 1,20,667 5 1,76,671 0.621 1,09,713 6 1,76,671 0.564 99,643 7 1,76,671+30,000 =2,06,671 0.513 1,06,022 Sum of influxs 8,75,250 Less: hard currency escape ( at clip 0 ) -11,03,340 ( Plant cost +installation charges ) NPV ( 2,27,975 ) NPV = PRESENT VALUE OF CASH INFLOW PRESENT VALUE OF CASH OUTFLOW Decision Since the NPV of the proposal is negative, the proposal needs to be rejected.

Alfred Hitchcock Essay Example

Alfred Hitchcock Essay Example Alfred Hitchcock Essay Alfred Hitchcock Essay Alfred Hitchcock (13 August 1899 29 April 1980) is perhaps one of the most renowned and innovative film directors in the history of cinema, with an incredible film-making career spanning over half a century and dozens of award- winning films. He specialized in the psychological thriller genre, creating famous hit films such as Psycho (1960), North by North-west (1958) and Vertigo (1959) and revolutionized many cinematic techniques such as camera angles, lighting and sound which he used extensively in his films to successfully create a variety of moods and atmospheres in scenes and to manipulate the audiences feelings and emotions from fear, shock and suspense.Psycho was based on the novel written by Robert Bloch, and is probably one of the most recognisable and famous films made by Hitchcock. Released in 1960, it initially received mixed reviews from film critics, but soon it became a massive hit at the box office and thousands of people around queued up at movie theatres to watch t he film. Later, many critics considered it Hitchcocks best film and praised Psycho as a masterpiece of cinematic art. Despite all these good reviews, the film caused a lot of controversy because it contained quite explicit gore and sex references, things that have rarely shown so strongly on American films as in Psycho .For example, there is a scene where a shadowy figure brutally stabs a woman while she is showering, and an embalmed corpse is shown during the end. Although these scenes are nothing compared to the brutal and overwhelmingly gruesome horror films of today, Hitchcock still struggled to get his whole film released due to censors efforts to delete several explicit shots in the movie. Psycho was known as the mother of all horror films and Hitchcock basically formed the whole archetypical basis for most horror and thriller films that were released after it.Shot in stark black and white, the film Psycho portrays young secretary Marion Crane as she successfully steals $ 40,0 00 from her employer and leaving her town of Phoenix in Arizona, intending to get married. However, as Marion escapes, she drives through a heavy rainstorm at night and accidentally drives off the highway, driving along an unlit road and turning up at the eerie, seemingly deserted Bates Motel, in the middle of nowhere. However the motel owner Norman Bate hurries out and helps her inside with her bags while the rain pours around them.After Marion has settled into her cabin, Norman Bates innocently invites her to have dinner with him in the massive, eerie house that overlooks the motel, however after he has a loud and furious argument with his invalid mother up in the second floor of the house, he brings the dinner down to the motel and suggests to Marion they have it in the parlour. The parlour scene is the scene prior to the famous, celebrated shower scene, and Hitchcock is very successful in this scene in using his technical mastery of camera angles, lighting and clever imagery to foretell the future events of the film. The scene begins when Norman walks into the darkened parlour and switches the light on, illuminating the room .The parlour, where the scene takes place, is a very interesting room which reveals a lot about Normans personality. It is decorated with stuffed birds of prey, like owls and large ravens, hanging from the walls and ceilings .The camera pans to each one, finally showing Marions uncomfortable expression with eating in a room full of stuffed birds. The two characters sit on the opposite ends of the room, both facing each other; however the camera never shows both of them in the same shot for most of the duration of the scene. In the scene Hitchcock makes clever use of camera angles and the position of the actors in the camera shots to subtly show to the audience the emotions of the two characters and who has power in the conversation .He also uses lighting to show the personalities of the two next to where Marion is seated there is a br ight light so there is almost no shadows on her , however, Norman is sitting in the dark side of the room, and most of the time half of his face is shrouded in shadow, something that cleverly shows his dual or split personality that is revealed and explained later in the movie.Marion starts eating her dinner, while Norman never touches his. Instead he watches her intently, sitting upright as she nibbles her sandwich, looking frightened as well as very interested. He remarks to her You eat like a bird which she replies to Youd know, of course as she looks around the room at the large stuffed birds, staring at her form the ceiling. They have a noticeably uncomfortable conversation about his strange hobby (taxidermy) which fills the time, not pass it and the audience notices his lack of friends. For most of the start of the conversation, the camera switches smoothly between Marion and Norman as they talk, and the camera angles are ordinary, shot at neither a low or high angle shot. Ho wever, as they start to talk about Normans mother and his furious argument with her, Norman is strangely shot in a very low angle- shot, that is cleverly framed to include the huge stuffed owl that hangs from the ceiling above his head, causing the audience to think of Norman as some kind of predator.His face is also half-shrouded with shadow. This change subtly shows that Norman has gained the power in the conversation. Despite this, his voice is still quiet. Suddenly, as Marion delicately suggests that Normans mother should be put someplace else in other words, an institution, the mood and the atmosphere of the room goes cold and foreboding, and the camera switches to Norman using a close-up shot of his face as he slowly leans in towards Marion, showing his angry face. Deep violins and cellos play slowly and ominously in the background, showing the seriousness of the conversation but not too loud as not to obscure Normans words. The camera quickly switches to Marion a few times, f raming her perfectly with a high-angle shot to show her powerlessness. The music rises with Normans simmering anger, and he furiously scorns Marions suggestions, but then leans backs against his chair and the music quietens with his anger, suddenly he is back to his friendly, affable personality. Now that the audience know the Norman is trapped in a situation where he has to care for his ill mother or let her die, they sympathize with him more.Afterwards, Marion decides to leave and thanks Norman for the dinner. While doing so, she stands up and talks a bit more, and the camera frames her with a low-angle shot- while showing Norman, who is still seated, in a very high-angle shot; this shows that Marion has regained power and to make the audience to think of Norman as less of a threat to Marion than before. However, before she leaves the room, Norman quickly asks Marion her name, and she accidentally replies with her real name (Marion Crane), not the name she signed in the motel ledg er (Marie Samuelson). The audience wouldve realized by now that there could be a connection between Marions bird-related surname with the birds of prey that Norman Bates stuffs, which he calls his hobby, and if this is perhaps a glimpse of the fate of Marion Crane, however they cannot be too sure at this moment, as why would Hitchcock kill the main protagonist so early in the film?After Marion leaves the room, Norman stands up and starts chewing some gum. His mood and personality has changed dramatically; he is suddenly more relaxed and casual, contrasting with his nervous and edgy temperament that he had when Marion was in the parlour. Walking towards the counter and picking up the ledger, the audience notice how confident he has become, and wonder what the reason is. He opens the ledger and the camera shows a close-up of what hes reading- the fake name that Marion wrote on her arrival to the motel- and then switches back to his face, while he shows a slight smirk at the false name and location. Then, he slowly walks back into the dark shadowy parlour, his face and body covered in darkness, and stops before a wall, momentarily surrounded by large, sinister birds of prey. The audience can see that he is trying to listen to whats happening next door, and then removes a painting on the wall that separates the parlour from Cabin Room 1 where Marion is staying to reveal a small jagged peephole cut into the wall, a beam of bright light coming from it.Peering into the small hole, it is revealed to Norman that Marion is undressing to take her shower. Hitchcock uses a point-of-view shot with the camera to show to the audience exactly what he is seeing, and they feel uncomfortable to be put in a position where they can spy on Marion. Next, the camera switches to an extreme close-up of Normans face, filling the screen with just his unblinking eye, which is illuminated slightly due to the hole. The music that is played during the scene (sinister, high-pitched, violins an d cellos) is very effective as it adds to the mounting creepiness of Norman Bates. Norman puts the painting back , and gazes at nothing, as though he is thinking intently about Marion, a stony, evil expression on his shadowy face .The audience are very fearful at this point, as they think that Norman could now try to assault Marion or alert the police over her fake name, and as he walks resolutely out of the parlour while the music gets slightly faster and louder, but the audience relax, as Norman instead walks up the hill to the large, sinister house where his mother is, and walks inside, shutting the door after him. The camera uses a long shot when he does this, to suggest that Norman is no longer a threat as he is so far away, lulling the audience into a false sense of security. The audience are now itching to find out what happens, whether Marion would escape with her boyfriend or give up the money, and as they know that they watching a Alfred Hitchcock movie, they know that the re are probably many shocking twists that make his movies so exciting, but perhaps not as shocking as what happens next in the filmThe camera switches to the interior of Cabin Room 1 and shows Marion, who is now clothed in a bathroom robe, scribbling on a piece of paper before ripping it out and tearing it to pieces. She walks to the bathroom and flushes the pieces of paper down the toilet (shockingly, another ground-breaking moment- a toilet flushing had never been seen or heard on American films, which was to jolt audiences, but not nearly as much as her brutal murder) and takes off her robe, steps in the bathtub, closes the shower curtain and turns the shower on.This is the beginning of the famed shower scene, where Marion, what the audience think is the movies main heroine and protagonist gets violently and brutally killed off while shes having a shower in the motel bathroom, in an unexpected twist that shocked the audience. The scene is only 4 minutes long, with over 70 differe nt shots and many camera angles and it took 6 days to fully film it. Hitchcock paid enormous amounts of attention to details, and used cinematic techniques extensively such as camera angles, music and sound effects to create a truly horrific murder scene.As Marion is showering, one of the most noticeable features of the scene is the extreme crispness and loudness of the sounds that she makes, accentuating the lack of other noise around her. Furthermore, as she is showering, it looks like she is really enjoying herself, as though the shower , probably because she has decided to go back to Phoenix and the water is having a cleansing effect on her, cleaning all of her guilt. Next, the camera shows Marion from behind to show the shower curtain. The bathroom door is opened, and the audience can just about see a sinister, shadowy silhouette through the translucent shower curtain as he/she steps forwards towards the shower, although Marion is oblivious to her surroundings. By now, the audi ence would be screaming at the screen, telling Marion to look behind her, but the silhouette pulls across the curtain (the sound of this is amplified greatly to emphasize its abruptness) to reveal itself -an unidentifiable, shadowy figure brandishing a large and menacing knife, one of the most iconic images of the horror genre, and stabs Marion repeatedly as she struggles.The sequence of shots that follows are shot from many different angles and altogether there were more than 70 shots, and the shower scene is sometimes hailed and the well-edited scene in history. As the figure stabs Marion, the camera quickly switches from Marions horrified, screaming face to the shadowy figure and back again, shooting the two from many different angles. This emphasizes the extreme franticness and rapidness of the murder. Furthermore, it gives the impression that Marion is completely surrounded and cant escape. Also, the camera shows the murderers arm move in a stabbing motion many times, so that e ven though the audience never really see the knife stabbing her skin, they use their imagination to fill up the blanks. About forty-seconds of brutal violence later, the mysterious figure swiftly leaves the bathroom and the camera cleverly only shows the back of it to conceal his/her identity.Meanwhile, Marion is left in the bath, bleeding to death, and the camera shows her hand slowly sliding off the tiled wall, signifying her diminishing life. Also, as her body falls to the floor of the bathtub, there is a shot of Marions face, which is cunningly framed so she is not in the centre of the shot, but more to the right of it. This camera shot shows how Marion is not the main protagonist and heroine of the movie anymore. She falls forward with her hand on the shower curtain , breaking it and laying on the floor dead while the camera pans to the bathtub the where the water is washing away Marion s blood down the plughole.Music and sound effects are perhaps the most effective techniques used here. When the silhouette appears, one of the most iconic movie soundtracks in film history plays; a tumultuous and ear-piercing cacophony of short, high screeching notes played by violins cellos and other string instruments that greatly emphasize the franticness of the scene. It was music that made the audiences skin crawl and their hairs to stand on end. Alfred Hitchcock actually didnt want any music in the shower scene, but after he heard the score composed by Bernard Hermann, it influenced the scene a lot, greatly adding to the horror and tension. It gradually became higher and louder as the murder goes on, accentuating the heightening horror of the scene, but then goes very melancholy and slow as Marion is left to die in the bathroom, signifying the last few moments of her life. It stops altogether after she falls over and breaks the shower curtain, and the only sound left in the scene is the splash of water from the shower falling on the bathtub. Sound effects also added to the horror. For example, the sickening sound of the knife slashing through Marions skin is very audible; giving the audience impressions that the cuts are very deep (the sound was actually made by stabbing melons with a knife)By exposing the audience to forty-five seconds of nonstop violence without actually showing any gore or blood, Hitchcock leaves it up to our imagination. Imagination has no limits which is why the scene is timeless and just as shocking half a century later. The shock is not only the sudden bombardment of cuts but the fact that he killed off his leading lady. We looked through her eyes, listened to her thoughts and witnessed her actions only to see her naked body slashed to an ugly death. With more than an hour to go, anything is possible. Even though the film had a low budget, and the props used in the shower scene were quite crude and unsophisticated (although it was 1960, and special effects werent really used in films back then) Hitchcock uses his technic al mastery of cinematic techniques to make the shower scene and the whole movie one of the most famous in film history.

Friedrich Nietzeche Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Friedrich Nietzeche - Assignment Example On the other hand, slave morality embraces the standards of what is beneficial to the powerless. The morality holds that the independent and strong people possess evil attributes (211). In effect, the slave morality advances virtues such as humility, sympathy, and kindness. Thus, the two types of morality have remarkable differences. The master morality gives the masters a sense of fullness, including ability, wealth, and power. In this respect, the noble people perceive themselves as the originators of value, and can decide on what is good or bad. Such masters do not need the outside force to affirm their goodness because they believe devotion for greatness is in them (212). Thus, Nietzsche thinks that master morality is superior because it emphasizes strength, freedom, power, and egoism, and concern less with the externals. The morality evokes fear, inflicts suffering, and exploits the people in the lower order. In essence, the masters consider the non-masters in the society contemptible. To them, the non-masters are secondary and insignificant. Nietzsche thinks that religion and democracy fall under slave morality because the two tend to ease the suffering of the people. The expression of the slave morality adheres to the moral standards inherent in religion and democracy. Hence, the religion and democracy exemplify the same ideology as in slave morality. In effect, the religion and democracy exhibit the ideology of herd, majority, and convention contained in the slave morality. Similarly, religion and democracy embrace values such equality, pity, and humility that typify slave morality. Thus, Nietzsche uses the values to classify religion and democracy under the slave morality. In my opinion, relativistic morality cannot be defended. The relativistic morality tends to exaggerate the extent of diversity among cultures. Notably, the superficial differences among the cultures mask the underlying shared agreement. I

Torturing terrorist by the goverment Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Torturing terrorist by the goverment - Article Example Suspects of terrorism are expected to provide the government with intelligence information on the whereabouts of their gangs, sympathizers and financiers. However, to extract this information from them always become the problem. This is because most of these suspects are under oath to protect the activities of their groups. For example, most of them opt to commit suicide rather than having to be interrogated by the authorities. Concealing this information, therefore, renders a big blow to governments counter-terrorism activities. Proposals have for this reason been forwarded encouraging governments to use more force on the suspects and this involves the application of torture to the suspects. This, however, has human rights implications besides the expected outcomes. This means that in the face of the society, the human rights organizations and the international community, torturing terrorism suspects have pros and cons. Applying torture to terrorism suspects have advantages. First, torture to terrorism suspects has not been covered in the Geneva Convention report on the treatment of prisoners of war. Further, the convention only prohibits torture in the culprits own soil. When happening in another country, torture is thus legally acceptable. Secondly, treating terrorism with diplomacy only makes the situation worse. When the dignity of the suspects is respected as proposed by humanitarian organizations the terrorists are even more encouraged to make attacks. In addition, new members have no reproach joining the terror groups. This is as opposed to a torture situation in which case even those who have the intentions of joining such groups become discouraged. This slowly weakens the group and makes it unable to conduct attacks in future. Thirdly, the fight against terrorism often requires the people to make a choice between two evils. To use torture to compel disclosure of intelligent information,

Bollywood Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Bollywood - Research Paper Example The introduction of Bollywood or Indian movies began in the early 1800’s, during the British Colonial regimes. Perhaps one of the most dominant characteristics of Bollywood movies since their introduction is the essence of nationalism. That is, giving the movie certain aspects that associates it with Indians. One of these aspects that was used since their introduction is the use of Hindi language to dominate a large portion of the movie. It is important to note that Hindi is not the only language spoken in Indian, but forms part of the over one hundred languages spoken in this highly populated country.2 However, the reason why Hindi was chosen as the appropriate language of producing Bollywood movies was based on the fact that it was a popular language used for trading purposes. Many people could understand it owing to the fact that it had certain dialects associated with their native languages. These native languages include Assamese, Bengali, Marathi and Odia, which all adde d up to form Hindi. Years later, the language was made a national language; hence giving Bollywood movies the essence of nationality. Additionally, Bollywood movies have been characterized by a high sense of musical eclecticism since their introduction, up to the independence, a characteristic that is still evident up to date. During the initial stages of introducing Bollywood movies, the types of music that were used for its creation incorporated musical genres such as: Folk music, Carnatical classical music, religious music from Northern and other parts of India. Carnatical classical music is a musical system commonly linked with the southern part of the India that has an emphasis on vocals. This idea was strongly supported by the pioneer of Bollywood movies, Dadasahib, who believed that indigenous aspects of Indian film production would facilitate the acquisition of their future freedom. 3 Consequently,

Modification of the 4-Quinolone Scaffold

Modification of the 4-Quinolone Scaffold Discovery: Quinolones are antibacterial agents that are of major importance in the antibacterial field as the can act as the model antibiotic. This is due to their broad range of activity, the high potency and good bioavailability with both intravenous and oral administration possible. This is coupled with high serum levels and a distribution within tissues that specifies concentration levels and results in, theoretically, few occurrences of unwanted side effects.1 The timeline for the development of this class of antibacterial agents begins with the isolation of the bactericidal naphthyridine, nalidixic acid, in the 1960s by George Lesher as the first synthetic quinolone antibiotic. Nalidixic acid is illustrated in Figure 1 below and is a by-product that was isolated from a chloroquine synthesis.2 Figure 1: Nalidixic Acid The clinical use for naldixic acid was to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by gram negative organisms. The successive generations of quinolones had activity against both gram negative and gram positive bacteria as well as anaerobic bacteria. This development lead to fluoroquinolones which are latest in quinolone antimicrobials. The clinical uses for the quinolones today include respiratory tract infections, bacterial meningitis and gastrointestinal infections as well as the historical use of treating UTIs. The development of fluoroquinolones resulted in a more extended spectrum of activity and improved pharmacokinetics then the first generation of quinolones.3,4 Structure: The general quinolone class of molecules is comprised of 4-quinolone and 1,8-napthyridine ring structures. The naphthyridine ring structures differ slightly from the 4-quinolone core due to the presence of two nitrogen atoms in the rings of the molecule (Figure 2). The substituents R5, R6, R7 and R1 were added to improve the activity of the quinolone core before the development of highly potent fluoroquinolones.1 Figure 2: General Structure of 4-Quinolones The first fluoroquinolone to be developed was Flumequine; illustrated in Figure 3. It had a fluoro-group at the 6 position and was the first compound to show that modifications of the quinolone core could results in improved activity against the gram-positive bacteria that nalidixic acid had no effect on.1 Figure 3: The first fluoroquinolone- Flumequine Mechanism of Action: Inhibition of bacterial DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) and topoisomerase IV is achieved by quinolones. These enzymes play a vital role in the uncoiling of DNA. DNA gyrase acts as the target in gram negative microbes and topoisomerase IV as the target in gram positive microbes for quinolone activity. The widely-accepted mechanism of action is that quinolones bind to complexes, formed between DNA and one of the enzymes, to generate a Quinolone-DNA-Enzyme complex that inhibits DNA replication. The binding of quinolones and topoisomerase is enabled by a water-metal ion bridge. The inhibition is bacteriostatic as replication is reversible.   Eventually apoptosis occurs due to the fragmentation of the DNA ends of the complex. This results in bactericidal inhibition. The most common form of resistance to the quinolones is due to specific mutations in the topoisomerase II and IV that interfere with the water-metal ion bridge interaction.2,3 Development: Quinolones are grouped into generations depending the activity of the molecules. The first generation showed activity against gram negative bacteria that caused UTIs. The second generation showed enhanced activity against gram negative bacteria and improved activity against gram positive. This enabled the list of conditions that quinolones could treat to expand. This generation displayed improved pharmacokinetics; due to the use of a C7-piperdinyl substituent. The third generation provided improvement in efficacy in inhibiting gram positive and anaerobic pathogens. 3,5 The fourth generation of drugs observed dramatically increased activity against DNA gyrase and gram positive microbes, improved pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. The major changes were the addition the fluoro-group at the C-6 position and a ring substituent at C-7. Norfloxacin (1), second generation, was the first broad spectrum quinolone with ciprofloxacin (2) the first quinolone to have activity observed beyond the treatment of UTIs.2 Currently, Garenoxacin (3), fourth generation, is of interest due to its distinct carbon-carbon bond at position C7 and its broad spectrum of activity.3 Figure 4:Generations of quinolone drugs. Three modified quinolone cores have acted as templates for drugs that are on the commercial market. The cores were 4-oxo-1,4-dihydroquinolone (4), 7-oxo-2,3-dihydro-7H-pyrido-[1,2,3-d,e]-1,4-benzoxazine (5) and 4-oxo-1,4-dihydro-[1,8]-naphthyridine (6). These selected cores are illustrated in Figure 5.3 Figure 5: Cores used as templates for commercial drugs Retrosynthesis: Scheme 1: Retrosynthesis of 4-Quinolone core6 A carbon-carbon disconnection between the ketone and the aromatic ring, the reverse would be a Friedel-Crafts reaction.   The double bond is opened and the hydroxyl group that is added is converted to a carbonyl group. The final disconnection, N-C, results in the starting materials; a keto ester and the substituted aniline. Synthesis: Several synthetic approaches have been taken to generate the 4-quinolone core. The Gerster-Hayakwa and Chu-Mitscher reactions are used specifically for the synthesis of the drug Levofloxacin. The Chu-Li route was established primarily for 9-cyclopropylpyrimidinones. The Gould-Jacobs reaction, Grohe-Heitzer cycloacylation and Conrad-Limpach-Knorr are appropriate methods of synthesising the generic 4-quinolone core.3 The Conrad-Limpach-Knorr synthesis will generate quinolones but this reaction will give different products depending of the whether it is kinetically or thermodynamically controlled. Aniline and 3-keto ester are mixed and at room temp the keto group joins the nitrogen of the aniline giving an enamino ester (kinetic product) and cyclisation at 250 °C results in a 4-quinolone. Thermodynamically controlling this reaction, by carrying it out at 140 °C, results in an amido-ketone dominating regardless of the less reactive ester on the keto ester being the centre of the first nucleophile attack. Ring closure results in a 2-quinolone.7 Scheme 2: Conrad-Limpach-Knorr Synthesis (kinetically controlled) As the substrate for the cyclisation needs to be the high-energy tautomer and cyclisation causes loss of aromaticity in the ring, solvents with high boiling points are generally used in this synthesis.8 The reactions are encouraged by electron-donating substituents in the aromatic ring including methoxy or amino groups. These give increased yields in the condensation and ring closure steps. A CF3 group can act as an acceptor at C-4.9 The short reaction sequence limits possibility of loss of yield. Rational Drug Design: Illustrated in Scheme 3 is the process of rational drug design. Computational screening is used to identify the target and generate the lead compound. This is modified considering the biological aspects, the 3D structure, the QSAR and reactivity of the compound. This generates a new lead which is optimised and put forward for preclinical trial. Scheme 3: Rational Drug Design Process10 Nilsen et al. used endochin as a lead for optimisation in a rational drug design study. The target selected was the multiple stages of the life cycle of malaria. Endochin is potent against malaria but is not active in vivo due to rapid and extensive metabolisation. Optimisation was required to form endochin-like quinolones (ELQ) that retained the activity of endochin but were biologically active. The aims for optimisation was to improve metabolic stability and aqueous solubility as well as eradicate cross-resistance.11 Figure 6: Structural Representation of Endochin The EQLs were synthesised by converting the quinolones to quinolines, followed by nucleophilic displacement. The quinoline undergoes Suzuki-Miyaura coupling with a boronic ester and finally the protecting group is removed (Scheme 4 A). An OCF3 group was also added to the side chain for further optimisation (Scheme 4 B). Scheme 4: Synthesis of ELQ An orally active class of quinolones were synthesised; 4(1H)-quinolone-3-diarylethers. The initial lead, ELQ-233 (Figure 7: ELQ-233Figure 7), displayed low nano-molar IC50 values. The optimisation step was to introduce an aryl group at C-3. A lipophilic diphenylether side chain was used as it had been previously reported as integral in other antimalarial drugs. This was to work with the methyl group at C-2 to cause out of plane movement of the sterically large aromatic ring, altering the à Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒ Ã¢â€š ¬ stacking from the numerous H-bonds. This variation would not be perused as ELQ-233 was equipotent to endochin. Figure 7: ELQ-233 Due to the success of adding a fluoro group to the quinolone, to further build on the optimisation of endochin, a fluorine was added at C-6 on a second optimised molecule (7) along with a methoxy group at C-7 (as is in the endochin structure); illustrated in Figure 8.11 The methoxy group is a useful substituent due to its lipophilic and hydrophilic components in close proximity. Figure 8: Illustration of Compound 7 However, both ELQ-233 and 7 were metabolically unstable and therefore did not fulfil the optimisation requirements. Table 1: Values obtained for the optimised molecules Compound cLogP EC50 (nm) Endochin 3.35 3.8 ELQ-233 3.70 8.4 7 3.73 40 8 5.66 2.2 Further derivatives were generated and the pattern that emerged indicated that the substitution pattern on the aromatic ring influenced the reactivity with malaria. This result led to the rational design of further ELQ derivatives. Straight-forward reactions were continued to be used. The boronic ester with a varying diarylether side chain undergoes palladium mediated coupling with the quinolone then a demethylation occurs using hydrobromic acid to give the desired product. Repositioning the OCF3 group to the side chain increased the efficacy and the metabolic stability. The compounds that was found to be metabolically stable and potent had a chloro-group at C-6 and OCH3 ­at C-7. Figure 9: Structural representation of compound 8 Although compound 8 was the most potent compound, the high logP value is a disadvantage as it does not follow Lipinskis Rule of Five which is the basis for most developed drugs. To improve solubility and allow for lower dosages of 8, bioisoteres of the side chain were employed. The OCF3 was replaced by CF, Cl and F by Nielson et al. and displayed subnanomolar activity. Other options would be to double the terminal OCF3 group, double the substituents on the diaryl side chain, convert the diphenyl ether side chain to a dipyridine ether side chain or replace a phenyl ring in the side chain with a cyclopropane group. Phenyl rings can be replaced by a heteroaromatic ring or a saturated ring to improve efficacy, lipophilicity and specificity of binding. The introduction of a pyridine ring should reduce the metabolism of the phenyl ring and toxicity of metabolites.12 In heterocycles, metabolism can be more complicated with hetero-atoms being oxidized and/or ring opening reactions possible- slowing metabolism. Cyclopropane was explored as derivative of the phenyl ring resulting in compounds with reduced molecular weights and lower lipophilicities. It also limits the conformations available and increase yields of ELQs.11 Scheme 5 below are the same coupling reactions that are stated by Nielson et al. but with the suggested changes to further improve the lea d. Caution must be taken when adding substituents to the side chain so that Lipinskis rule of five is obeyed; there must be no more than 5 hydrogen bond donors or 10 hydrogen bond acceptors and the molecule should be below 500 Da. Scheme 5: Suggested further optimised lead molecules Rational drug design is an advantageous modification method as it is a streamline process when compared with SAR or QSAR as there is no trial and error, all leads and derivatives are prepared having been predicted by computational means previously. The computational aspect allows for all compounds and potential targets to be envisaged in 3D before they are synthesized. This computed information is then stored on large databases which can assist future drug development work. Rational drug design can be an expensive technique as a specialized team is required with knowledge in biology, chemistry and computer science. Costs rise due to payment of wages for the team and the specialized equipment and computer software that is vital. Although the computational aspect of this method is beneficial it can also be a disadvantage as not all predicted compounds can be synthesized and if the compounds are synthesized they may not act as predicted when in vivo.   Specifically, in this ratio nal drug design study, the reactions utilised readily available reagents that were also inexpensive. They were straight-forward reactions that gave high yields and could be scaled up. These are vital as the cost of antimalarial drugs must be kept down so that all people can afford to access it.11 Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR): SAR studies examine how the structure of the molecule effects the activity. SAR considers structural characteristics and relates them the activity therefore it is necessary to have a well characterized database to compared the results against. The basic principle of SAR, that structure determines properties and reactivities in a biological system, is of importance when determining toxicological properties. This is of huge significance for quinolone development as they must be nontoxic in vivo while remaining bacteriosidal.13 Figure 10: Areas SAR Studies consider13 These studies examine which modifications are possible to the core ( Figure 11) and which substituents cannot be modified without negatively interfering with the activity and potency of the drug.   There can be qualitative and quantitative aspects to these studies. The quantitative considerations are part of a quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) which will be discussed later. Figure 11: Quinolone core positions for the SAR study Table 2: Important Positons on the Quinolone core-SAR Study results14 Position Influence On: Preferred substituent: Effect of substituent: 1 The pharmacokinetics and has control on overall potency. Cyclopropyl increase activity against gram negative microbes 5 Activity against gram-positive bacteria. NH2 and CH3 moiety improve activity against gram-positive bacteria 7 Spectrum of activity and pharmacokinetics. 5/6 membered N heterocycle (aminopyrrolidines and piperazines) Alkyl group Aminopyrrolidines: increase activity against gram-positive bacteria Piperazines: increase activity against gram-negative bacteria. Alkyl: enhance gram- positive potency and lengthen the serum half-life 8 Pharmacokinetics and specific activity on anaerobes. CF, CCl and COMe improve activity against anaerobic bacteria. alter specific interaction of the agent in vivo. SAR studies reveal that a hydrogen at R2 is preferred. Any larger moiety would likely cause steric hindrance with the adjacent carboxyl group at C-3 and the oxygen at C-4. These substituents are vital for activity as these positions are where binding to DNA bases occur before the sites are made available for other hydrogen bonding to proceed by DNA gyrase. A small molecule is best for potency at R6. This is usually a fluorine group in later generations of quinolones as it produces molecules of between 5 to 100 times greater potency that when a hydrogen is positioned at R6.14 Ciprofloxacin (Figure 12) is one of the original patented quinolone anti-bacterial agents. It is first generation as it has moderate activity towards gram negative bacteria, poor pharmacokinetics and poor bioavailability. Figure 12: Structural representation of Ciprofloxacin However, using the results of the SAR, Ciprofloxacin can be further optimized. Scheme 6 utilizes straight-forward reactions to attach an -NH2 moiety to the core at positon 5 where the SAR study indicates it has the greatest influence. Firstly, nitration of the aromatic ring occurs, followed by a reduction of the nitro group to an aniline with palladium on carbon. Scheme 6: Further optimisation based on SAR Study Results The new lead is still in agreement with the SAR results as the carboxyl and oxygen are present at C-3 and C-4 respectively. The preferred substituent as stated in Table 2 are also used throughout the reaction scheme; the piperazine is at position 7, the fluoro group at positon 6 and the cyclopropyl group at positon 1. These substituents can positively influence the spectrum of activity the potency and the overall pharmacokinetics of the molecule. The addition of extra hydrogen bond acceptors/donors must be limited so as not to disobey Lipinskis rule of five by having more than 5 hydrogen bond donors or 10 hydrogen bond acceptors. These reactions, like the rational drug design reactions, utilize readily available, generally inexpensive reagents which is important to keep the cost of the anti-malarial drug down. Palladium is an exception as it is a rare metal but cheaper alternatives could be used for this step such as Raney Nickel although this generates intermediates before the aniline is formed unlike the direct formation when the palladium catalyst is used.15 SAR studies can represent molecules as 2D, atoms and bonds, or 3D, steric effects and electrostatics. 3D is best for when the receipt-mediated mechanism is known. Successful SAR studies also need appropriate methods of analysis which depend on whether quantitative or qualitative analysis is being perused and if the mechanism is known. The ideal SAR model should have adequate molecules for fair statistical analysis, a wide range of activities and an even distribution of molecules in each compound class. This model is rarely found when toxicology is considered.13 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR): The basic principle of QSAR is that similar molecules have adequate similar mechanistic elements so that a common rate-determining step is shared among them and that they have comparable energy requirements for activity. This principle is taken further and the assumption is that differences in reaction rates results in differences in activity or potency.13 Lipophilic, electronic and steric effects are considered in QSAR studies. QSAR provides an equation that quantifies the SAR and allows for predictions about which property has an important role in the distribution/ mechanism of the drug. Predictions cut down on the volume of analogues to be synthesised. Equations are only applicable to compounds of the same structural class. Outliers indicate when a feature is important and can produce new leads. The QSAR may not give accurate predictions as the parameters have covariance on each other; the predicted model may vary in vivo.6 Lipophilicity/Hydrophobicity: This can be considered as the lipophilicity of the molecule or the lipophilicity of the substituents attached. Partition Coefficient, P, is the parameter associated with the lipophilicity of the molecule and is measured by Equation 1. Equation 1: Representation of the lipophilicity parameter. Solvents chosen to represent the Central nervous system The activity of a molecule can be related to the P value as a molecule must be able to cross membranes and be transported through the body to its target site which is dependent on its lipophilicity. Varying substituents on the core can alter the P value in whichever direction is more beneficial for the activity of the molecule. From SAR studies increased quinolone activity occurs when a lipophilic substituent, such as a halogen, is attached at C-6. Simple reactions, including nitration and chlorination (Scheme 7), will add these substituents to the core, again using cheap and readily available reagents. In general, increasing lead hydrophobicity increases activity (Figure 13). This does not go to infinity as there is a point at which the lead is to hydrophobic to be transported in vivo.6 LogP should not be more than 5 per Lipinskis rule of 5; high enough to bind, low enough to be released. Scheme 7: Addition of lipophilic substituents to the quinolone core to alter the P value Figure 13: Linear relationship between biological activity 1/C and lipophilicity6 Electronics: This parameter can influence ionisation and polarity which alters how a drug passes through a membrane or how strongly it binds to a receptor. Hammett substitution constant (à Ã†â€™) is the measure of the electron withdrawing or donating ability for substituents on an aromatic ring. à Ã†â€™ affects the equilibrium and the value is dependent on induction/resonance effects and whether the substituent is para or meta directing. Ortho is not considered due to sterics.6 Table 3:Substituents that can alter the à Ã†â€™ parameter Electron Donating Group (para): Electron Withdrawing Group (meta): -NH2 -NO2 -OH -CONH2 Halogen -CN Generally, electron-withdrawing substituent, positive à Ã†â€™ values, increase activity (Table 3). Simple reactions like those illustrated in Scheme 7 are used to attach the à Ã†â€™-influencing substituents to the quinolone. Sterics: Drug molecules must approach and successfully bind to a receptor and the sterics of the molecule can alter this approach. Bulk can result in nonbinding as the drug is sterically hindered from approaching the target site. It can also limit the available conformations so that only the most efficient arrangement binds to the receptor. Table 4: Parameters for measurements of steric effects6 Measure of Steric Effect: Key Feature: Other Factors: Tafts Steric Factor (Es) Quantifies steric feature of substituents Limited to use on certain substituents Molar Refractivity (MR) Measures volume occupied by atom(s) Corrects for ease of polarisation. Verloop Steric Parameter Computer programme calculates steric values For use with any substituent Using the quinolone core, modifications can be made so that the sterics prevent rapid metabolisation of a drug molecule in vivo which will extend its half-life and lead to better activity. Binding the quinolone to a large side chain restricts it from binding to smaller sites which Nilsen et al. conclude lead to better selectivity.11 Scheme 8 illustrates the addition of bulky side chains that can give better selectivity as they will only approach the sites they fit into. Furthermore, the double bond linkage and aromatic rings restrict the conformation that the molecule can adopt, increasing selectivity. Bulky side chains can prevent rapid metabolism occurring. When adding bulk, caution must be taken to ensure the molecule stays below the recommended 500 Da. Scheme 8: Reactions to alter the sterics of a quinolone core16 3D-QSAR: 3D-QSAR considers the relative spatial arrangement of model compounds and aims to correlate the features across molecules that affect activity and are required for ligand binding. 3D-QSAR studies the geometry, pharmacophore and molecular field. Key assumptions of 3D-QSAR13: The model compound and not its metabolite cause the biological response. The studied conformation is bioactive. Solvent effects are not considered The system is in equilibrium All compounds bind in the same manner to the one target. 3D-QSAR puts compounds with common configurations in a 3D grid, calculates the interaction and tabulates the results. An equation is then created based on the relationship between the calculations and the reported values. This verifies QSAR results. Conformers are superimposed to display the common ligand-binding orientation to the receptor. Probe atoms calculate steric and electrostatic fields.13 3D-QSAR studies on 1,3,5-triazine, quinolone derivatives, determined less bulky groups on the heteroatom ring, more bulk on the aro

Statue of Liberty Ribbon Essays -- Architecture History

Statue of Liberty Ribbon The Statue of Liberty has served as the single most important symbol of the friendship between the two countries and the ideal of democracy since its unveiling on October 28, 1886. At the time it was the tallest structure in America. The statue was originally a gift to the United States. The relationship between the two countries dates back before the United States was an independent country (Kotler p7). The French were one of the first to explore and settle in North America. Louis Jolliet and Jaques Marquette traveled the Mississippi. Renà © Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle explored the Great Lakes and established Louisiana. Frenchmen built outposts on the Gulf of Mexico, founded New Orleans, and colonized New France from Louisiana to northeast Canada. In the War of Independence, the Marquis de Lafayette fought with General George Washington. In its final battle at Yorktown, General Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau led the French navy and a land crew. Without French support a victory may have been impossible. The United States returned these favors during t...

A post war poem, ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est’ snatches at the opportunity to put an abrupt end to political problems worldwide

A post war poem, ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' snatches at the opportunity to put an abrupt end to political problems worldwide, and to avoid any sort of future World Wars. Poet Wilfred Owen shapes this poem around war and its consequences; this is a poem of deep, twisted, emotive imagery portrayed through intelligent poetic devices. The opening stanza draws the reader into the proverbial trench, ‘Bent double, like old beggars under sacks' – an example of accessible imagery, used through a simile. The following lines continue to create the atmosphere of war: ‘Coughing like hags, we cursed through the sludge', an unpleasant yet easily understandable occurrence. ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' practically marches the reader to war by emphasising soldiers' hardships at war; travelling to a ‘distant rest', and ‘men march asleep', an effective metaphoric phrase, elaborated upon straight after, Owen states soldiers would be ‘drunk with fatigue', and even after they'd ‘lost their boots', they would ‘limp on, blood-shod, all blind' on this seemingly eternal and insignificant march. Wilfred Owen will have captivated any reader by now to see the poem through to it's end. This poem is of a standard much higher than Owen's other work, as well as many of its time. ‘An ecstasy of fumbling', ‘misty panes and think green light' and ‘a green sea' are all first-rate adjectival phrases portraying further visions of war. ‘And floundering like a man in fire or lime' paints a very descriptive and hideously detailed picture. This stanza's flow is excellent and the rhyme scheme and iambic pentameter really keeping a solid rhythm going. In a small break-off from the second stanza, we have stanza three, just two lines, acting as an anti climax, the predecessor to the final twelve line stanza; this couple of lines links with the previous stanza via its rhyme scheme, it ends with the emotive, meaningful line ‘He plunges at me, guttering, choking drowning' – repetition of ‘drowning' through rhyme, emphasis used to a great effect. This draws us into the ultimate chapter of ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est'. Stanza four is littered with intelligent and effective poetic devices in the way of similes and existential imagery. For instance ‘Like a devil's sick of sin', ‘obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud', two lines, and three similes manage to highlight the repulsive nature of war. Yet more simple yet informative adjectives and verbs paint pictures in the readers mind – ‘Watch the white eyes writhing in his face', sickening yet beautiful. This is followed by ‘If you could see †¦ with such high zest' – a five line cut from the stanza illuminates the poem with brilliance. ‘The blood coming from the froth-corrupted lungs', ‘obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud' and ‘vile, incurable sores' are three examples of emotive, negatively charged poetry. The poem then draws into its infamous close: ‘Dulce et decorum est †¦ Pro patria mori' – Latin, simply translated to â€Å"It's sweet and fitting to die for your country†. This is after playing down war for four convincing and vibrant stanzas. He dubs the saying an ‘old lie', a bold yet shockingly debatable declaration. This ending rounds off the poem impeccably; ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' rhymes in alternating couplets and uses iambic pentameter in the right places, it's a near-perfect formula not to be missed out on. The poem begins with an introduction to trench warfare and goes on stating the hardships of war and life as a soldier followed by a poetic patch of high-quality description, it proceeds to finish drowning you in a sea of soldiers' sorrow. In a moment of bias, I have to input my own opinion on this piece; it is one of the more interesting pieces of poetry, not too bogged-down, the rhythm throughout the second stanza in particular is excellent. The poetic devices incorporated are done so as effectively as I've ever read, all the similes and metaphors already mentioned in this appreciation fully validate my statement. At the same time the poem doesn't overdo use of imagery and intelligent language, to the point it is so abstract it makes difficult, complicated reading. ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' provides good balance, making it accessible and easy to relate to. Overall it's an impeccable, negatively charged protest against war, which leaves the timeless question: â€Å"Dulce et decorum est, pro patria mori† – Well?

Facts About WW2

Facts About WW2 Free Online Research Papers I. The War Begins A. The Italian invasion of Ethiopia might be considered by some to be the starting point of WWII, but in the US perspective the war began in Asia. Even when the Germans re-occupied the Rhineland (territory given to France after WWI), Europe did not stir. In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale attack on China- attacking its 5 northern provinces. 1. This threatened US investments and other interests in the region as well as US access to several vital materials- especially rubber. 2. When President Roosevelt tried to rally public support for a US response (he proposed some kind of â€Å"quarantine† on Japan) his efforts fell flat- the public wanted nothing to do with it. 3. The depth of the US public commitment to isolation was revealed when, in December 1937, the Japanese bombed and sank a US gunboat (Panay) in broad daylight. The Japanese claimed it was an accident and the US public forgave them. B. Hitler began to make his move in 1938. In March, his forces swept into Austria and Hitler declared an â€Å"Anschluss†- Union with Austria. He then demanded that Czechoslovakia give him the Sudetenland- land on the German border that was occupied mainly by ethnic Germans. Czechoslovakia refused, but while it had a decent army, it was no match for the Germans without the support of others. Instead of offering support, Britain and France met with Hitler in Munich to discuss his demands. 1. This produced the famous â€Å"Munich Accords.† Britain and France agreed to support Hitler’s claims on the Sudetenland in return for a promise from Hitler that, â€Å"This is the last territorial claim I have to make in Europe.† 2. Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, went home to a hero’s welcome for having prevented war. C. Despite his promise of Munich, Hitler seized the remainder of Czechoslovakia in early 1939 and started to threaten Poland. After signing a non-aggression pact with Stalin in August 1939, Hitler invaded Poland (September). D. Having formal alliances with Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days after the invasion of Poland. III. Global War A. Following his victory in Poland, Hitler took little action for several months. Many believed that he was finished and would be satisfied with the territory he had conquered. 1. In the US, Roosevelt tried to get the Congress to allow the sale of arms to England and France, but he got only partial victory. Congress permitted the sale of weapons, but continued to demand that it be on a cash and carry basis- England and France would have to pay for anything they bought with cash. Isolationism was still strong in the US. B. Then, starting in November, Hitler invaded the West- taking Finland, Denmark, Norway and Belgium en route to Paris. Joined by Italy, the Axis powers took France on June 22 1940. C. With Britain now facing Germany virtually alone, attitudes in the US began to change. There was still a huge movement against entering the war, but Congress did approve measures that allowed the administration to begin making preparations for war. 1. In September, 1940, Congress approved the first peace-time military draft in American history. 2. By December, 1940, Britain was virtually bankrupt, and the Congress abandoned it’s â€Å"cash and carry† policy, implementing the new â€Å"lend-lease† policy. It allowed the President to â€Å"lend† or â€Å"lease† armaments to any nation deemed vital to the interests of the US. 3. The US became, in Roosevelt’s words, â€Å"the arsenal of democracy.† 4. Still, the US did not enter the war, and satisfied with an air campaign designed to weaken the British in preparation for an eventual invasion, Hitler turned his attention east. He invaded Russia, in violation of their mutual non-aggression pact, in June 1941. 5. Roosevelt, convinced that US entry into the war in Europe was inevitable, met with Winston Churchill, the British leader, in August, 1941 a. Meeting aboard the USS Augusta, Churchill agreed that if the US entered the war, England would support US plans for the post-war order. This agreement, called the Atlantic Charter declared that the aims of the war were not to capture anyone’s territory, but simply to restore democracy and freedom of the seas, to establish a post war trading system which focused on free and open trade, to develop post-war international institutions that would provide some kind of international security, and which would demand the disarmament of belligerent states. b. Roosevelt knew that the American people would very likely resist entry into the war if these points were not agreed upon beforehand. D. In Asia, the crisis in Europe emboldened Japan, which proceeded to invade Southeast Asia- taking territories controlled by the French and British there. 1. Roosevelt was finally able to get Congress to respond to Japanese aggression in Asia, but Congress would approve only an economic response. The US imposed an embargo on the sale of oil and steel to Japan first. Following the Japanese invasion of Indochina, which threatened US rubber supplies, the US froze all Japanese assets in American banks. 2. The German invasion of Russia was particularly important, because it made a Japanese assault on the Russian Far East less urgent. The Japanese realized that the US economic stranglehold posed a more immediate threat and moved up plans to attack the US directly. The original Japanese war plan was designed to avoid a direct fight with the US, as Japan believed it could achieve its objectives by seizing most of the territory from Russian Siberia to Indonesia, which was rich in natural resources that Japan needed. E. The US gradually became more intimately involved in the British war effort as both American merchant ships and warships came to be used to ship arms and to protect others’ ships that were carrying arms. This led inevitably to numerous cases of German submarine attacks on American shipping. F. Still, the US public wanted to stay out of the war. They would remain opposed to US entry into WWII until the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. 1. Japan was desperate. Her oil reserves were very low and would have run out by the end of 1942. 2. Though the US was expecting some kind of attack, it was expected more in the Philippines than elsewhere. 3. The attack on Pearl Harbor was a complete surprise. It left the US Pacific Fleet crippled, killing 2,403 people, destroying 8 battleships and most the the Pearl Harbor aircraft fleet. 4. Nevertheless, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a failure for the Japanese. a. They were unable to destroy the US aircraft carrier battle groups, which had gone to sea days before. b. They failed to destroy the huge oil reserves at Pearl, which would have take months to restore. c. The attack unified the American people, who immediately shifted from an isolationist to a war footing. 5. On the day following the attack, the US declared war on Japan. Germany declared war on the US shortly after and the war had become genuinely global in scope. II. The course of the war. A. By mid-1940, England faced Germany alone. Instead of invading England immediately, Hitler decided to try to break down British defenses through an air campaign. The Battle of Britain was a long, sustained bombing campaign of England’s major cities. 1. Most historians now regard this as one of Hitler’s great mistakes. The bombing of London in particular united the British and strengthened their determination to fight to the last man. More important, it gave the British time to build up their own air force and to otherwise prepare for war. 2. A second major mistake of Hitler was his decision to invade Russia while the air campaign against England was still underway. The invasion of Russia in June, 1941, seemed to be an initial success- Stalin’s army was still unprepared and many of his Generals were inexperienced. a. However, as virtually every European invader from the past has learned, a successful invasion of Russia has to be completed before the bitterly cold Russian winter set in. Though Hitler moved quickly into Russia, taking huge chunks of territory as quickly as he had in Poland and France, he was not able to capture Moscow before the winter hit. b. Hitler’s army in Russia made another huge mistake- it treated conquered Russians with great brutality. This was a mistake because by most accounts, most Russians in Western Russia especially were not fond of life under Stalin. Had the Germans treated them well, they may have joined the German side. Instead, they became violently anti-German and conducted guerilla attacks on German forces throughout the war. B. Upon entering the war, the first US goals were to win the War of the Atlantic and to drive the Axis powers out of North Africa and back into Europe. 1. Some 400 Allied ships were lost on the Atlantic to German attack in 1942, and that number increased to 900 in 1943. However, as US ship production achieved full operation, the US and British began to turn the tide in 1943. C. Winning WWII in Europe 1. North Africa Campaign (Operation Torch) a. Axis were winning North Africa (threat to Middle East oil and Suez Canal) b. Erwin Rommels Afrika Korps sent c. Oct. 1942 Bernard Montgomery stopped advance at El Alamein turning point d. Nov. 1942 Dwight Eisenhower landed in Morocco and Algeria e. First action U.S. battered at Kasserine Pass f. May 13, 1943 surrendered at Tunis (Tunisia) 2. FDR and Churchill met for Casablanca Conference (Jan. 1943) a. Unconditional surrender of Axis called for. b. Plan invasion of Italy through Sicily c. Priority to win control of Atlantic 3. Battle of the Atlantic a. By 1942, 500 Allied ships lost to Germans, 900 lost in 1942 b. Sonar, depth charges, air patrols, radar c. Atlantic won by May, 1943 d. After summer, 1944, no Allied vessels lost 4. Sicily and Italy (Operation Huskey) a. July 10, 1943 250,000 Am. and Br. troops landed in Sicily b. July 25, Mussolinis govt fell he was imprisoned c. Sicily fell in 38 days! d. Italy agreed to surrender and switch sides! -Pietro Badoglio new Premier e. Battle of Italy became a bloodbath 5. While Battle of Italy going on, Allies met again to discuss strategy a. Conferences in Washington and Moscow b. Planned an invasion of Europe c. Nov 23 Big Three (FDR, Churchill, Stalin), or Grand Alliance met at Teheran, Iran -Stalin wanted relief -Feb 1943 Russians stopped German advance at Stalingrad d. By end of 1943, events favoring Allies -Bombing of Germany -By Spring, 1944, Allies control the air e. Planned invasion of Western Europe (Eisenhower put in charge of Operation Overlord) 6. Operation Overlord a. After France fell, Nazis fortified coast, weak spot was Normandy b. Allies amassed 3m troops, tons of equipment in S. England c. Prior to invasion, Allies sent 20,000 paratroopers to clear the beaches (five sites Omaha, Utah, Gold, Juno, Sword) d. Feigned attack at Calais; Hitler fell for it! e. At dawn, June 6 (D-Day) Allied army hit the beaches at Normandy f. July 25, Allies broke out g. Aug. 15, second invasion force landed on the Med. side of France (Cannes) h. Aug 25, Paris liberated i. By Sept, Allies reached Germany (Siegfried Line); talk of being home for Christmas j. Germany launched V-1 and V-2 rockets at England k. By late fall, Allies slowed down 7. Battle of the Bulge (Ardennes Forest, near Belgium) a. Dec. 16, Germans lunched last counteroffensive b. Pushed a bulge of some 50 miles into Allied line (75 miles across) c. Slowed Allied advance by 6 weeks; Russians entered Germany from the east d. 77,000 Allied casualties, 100,000 German e. By late Jan, the bulge had been wiped out f. But, before invading, one more conference 8. Yalta Conference (Crimea) to plan for post-war Europe a. Feb. 4-11, 1945 b. Ensured that Soviets would stay in war vs. Japan c. Planned another world organization (United Nations) 9. Fall of Germany (1945) a. Hitler still believed he could win! b. March 6 bridge at Ramagen (Rhine) captured c. Took Ruhr Valley (heavy industry), dropped 245,000 tons of bombs on German cities (saturation bombing) d. Before victory complete, FDR died in Warm Springs, GA on April 12, 1945 e. April 16 Red Army launched massive attack on Berlin f. April 25 US and USSR armies met at the Elbe g. April 28 Mussolini captured with his mistress h. April 30 Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide i. May 2 Berlin fell to Soviets j. May 7 Karl Doenitz (U-boat commander), Hitlers successor, surrendered to U.S. k. May 8 repeated with all Allied reps present (V-E Day) B. After defeating the Nazis, the Japanese still had to be defeated Research Papers on Facts About WW2Appeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Assess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeQuebec and CanadaGenetic Engineering19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraDefinition of Export QuotasMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWWhere Wild and West MeetHip-Hop is Art

Pigman and me essays

Pigman and me essays The novel was a great example of how most young kids grow up in todays society. Many kids influence either being raised in a single parent household, living in a small town, or being bullied by mean people. The young Zindal explains to the reader his life while growing up in Travis, N.J. He lived with his mother, sister Betty, and the Vivona family. The vivona family consists of Connie and her twin boys. The story begins when Pauls mother had got evicted for not paying rent at their last apartment. The family had to experience all of these difficulties because their dad ran off with another woman and did not leave them anything, to help them survive. When his mom meat Connie, she had a few dollars to her name and his mom was a good person of talk, and this how they ended up in Travis. This was supposed to be a change for the better in their lives, but instead it ended up being just like everywhere else they lived. This was due to his moms attitude and hatred toward men. Now onc e again she was making promises of this home being better than all the rest. Paul wrote the novel based on how he viewed his life growing up during this period and while he lived in Travis. He is the type of writer that try to pull you the reader into the story, this way you will better understand the different issues involved. He does a great job of being adventures with the stories, but not so well when he tries to move from story to story. Many different issues involved in the novel where unclear. One issue was how Jennifer cried because she could see her self as becoming a zombie. Another issue was how Nonno Frankie had to come out and cook and bring groceries for his grown daughter or they would not eat properly. That is not all that gave me trouble while reading the novel. His mom has a real problem with low self-esteem issues. She hated men, talked bad about people, always had a get rich scheme, and would ...

Effective Managing Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Effective Managing Systems - Essay Example As a result, when the activities are already set to be done, the situation is simply controlled by those who know what is going on. Other officers become left-out in the air and the situation becomes tough for them as they act as though they know what is happening when actually they don't. The tension between the officers themselves stretches out to the members of the organization pulling down the unity of each team and brings down their activities to nearly "zero" results. The symbolic frame emphasizes the concept of culture as a central role in leadership. Leaders should know they must work simultaneously on staff needs and skills, on goals and roles and the dynamics of political power and conflict. But there is something that operates beyond all these, an intangible manifestation that reflects the ethos or climate of the university. In Bolman and Deal's (2003) terms, "what is most important is not what happens but what it means." In SCG and BSA's case, this frame is portrayed by the interpersonal relationship that the officers have towards the other members and towards themselves as well. This particular fame of leadership helps the leaders recompose themselves for the sake of the whole organization's benefit. The fact is that this is the easiest issue that needs to be dealt with in Bryant University. Meanwhile, the structural frame emphasizes the importance of formal roles and relationships. "Structures-commonly depicted by means of organizational charts-are created to fit an organization's environment and technology" (Bolman and Deal). The focus is on organizational direction and goals, roles, policies, procedures and co-ordination and planning. The structural processes in the school provide the medium by which clarification of direction, roles and documentation of policies and procedures can be communicated and undertaken and, therefore, is a means by which the vision of the organization is put into practice. In the Senior Class Gift Case, the structural frameworks for organizational planning are created to show the direction, roles, policies and procedures. The SCG is coordinated and systematically managed through a process of collaboration, in which goal-setting, policy-making, planning, budgeting, implementing and evaluating are integrated. However, the result seemed to lead to unsystematic, fragmented processes which have caused frustration and ineffectiveness when dealing with other organizations in Bryant. To be able to see closely on the issue's solution, this case analysis paper shall make use of the HR Frames and The Political Frame to be able to see what other reasons are there for the failures of the two major organizations being discussed. The treatment to the problem shall be based upon Bolman and Deal's (2003) Reorganization of key concepts embodied in leadership theory into the different categories of structural arrangements of organizations. Indeed, it is believed by the author of this paper that one of the key solutions to this particular problem is to examine the capabilities of the

The Code of Journalistic Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Code of Journalistic Ethics - Essay Example If he does then it amounts to misrepresentation and is an unethical exercise. This stands valid for those cases where the journalist is aware that misrepresenting himself will get him the desired information he needs, however, he shall not disobey the code of ethics. According to the writer’s opinion, this ethic of misrepresentation is absolutely fine and necessary to keep the journalists in check and to make sure that they don’t cross their boundaries as journalists. Protecting Sources of Information: This code of ethics propounds the theory that a journalist shall never divulge the source of his information under any circumstances to any person who has asked for it. It all depends if the source wants him to divulge the information or not. According to the writer, this code of ethic is absolutely sufficient an imperative for the journalist ot do his duty in the most honest fashion to his profession. A journalist should never divulge the information to anyone if the sou rce has refused him to do so, even if that amounts to going to the jail. This way the journalist is showing solidarity and a faith of trust not only towards his source but also towards his profession. Objectivity and Fairness: A journalist should be fair and objective, but this code of ethic cannot be implemented for various reasons. ... Only in those circumstances the journalist is consciously avoiding to divert opinion, but nevertheless it happens all the time. The need of the hour is to come to grips with it and implement it consciously so that the effect would be greater than what it is right now. Conflict of Interest: This code of ethic talks about the fact that there shall be no conflict of interest while a journalist is reporting to his story. I completely agree to this code of ethic and believe that there is no room for submersing the news for the sake of any relative or loved ones. A journalist should always be free and fair in his reporting and therefore it is imperative to follow this code of ethic Economic Pressure: The theory of the code of not yielding to economic pressure says that a journalist should not write a story praising an organization in return of financial advantage. However, there are certain loopholes in this code of ethic, as a journalist needs money to finance himself and his family. It i s imperative for the survival of the journalist that he is able to afford a living, as the readers who are reading his article never understand the financial plight, which the journalist might be going through. Therefore, if there are times when a journalist needs to write a story for remuneration or advertise a story then he should be able to do it without having a feeling of guilt. Privacy vs. Public’s right to know: In the writer’s opinion there is no room for investigative journalism. A journalist should never cross his boundaries when trying to unearth the information. A public celebrity is a celebrity is public and does not live in the public scheme of things. Therefore, journalists should avoid